Social Psychology Research

Abstract Introduction: Status-seeking, as a fundamental motivation, drives many human behaviors. The aim of the present study was to construct and validate a scale for measuring social status-seeking and to determine its relationship with social distinction. Method: This study employed a mixed-method approach across three stages. In the first stage, the study population included all articles published in the field of social status-seeking between 2015 and 2025. The study sample consisted of 95 articles that were systematically reviewed, from which 130 items were extracted. After content validity assessment by experts and calculation of the content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI), 72 items remained. In the second stage, the approved items were compiled into an electronic scale (Google Form) and administered to 151 Iranian social media users (aged 16 to 70 years). The data were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), which reduced the scale to 29 items. In the third stage, the remaining items were re-administered, and 4,457 valid responses were obtained, which were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Results: The final scale consisted of 22 items loading onto three factors, which collectively explained 59% of the variance in the social status-seeking construct. Conclusion: The Social Status Seeking Scale (4S) is a valid instrument for measuring the motivation to attain social status. Assessing its relationship with social distinction provided evidence for the criterion validity of the scale.

Abstract Introduction: Investigating the factors that influence flourishing in marital life is crucial for reducing family problems, enhancing wellbeing, and improving positive functioning among couples. This study aimed to examine the relationship between teamwork skills, empathy, and self-control with couples’ flourishing, considering the mediating role of we-ness. Method: The statistical population consisted of married men and women aged 25 to 50 in Kashan, Iran, in 2024. A sample of 356 participants was selected using convenience sampling. Participants completed the Flourishing Scale (Butler & Kern, 2016), the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (2009), the Teamwork Skills Scale (Romero, 2022), the Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004), and the Weness Scale (TopcuUzer et al., 2021). Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) in Amos24. Results: SEM results indicated that the proposed model had a good fit with the data. Empathy (β = 0.280, p ≤ 0.001), self-control (β = 0.140, p ≤ 0.001), and teamwork (β = 0.269, p ≤ 0.001) directly predicted flourishing. Furthermore, weness significantly mediated the relationships of both empathy (β = 0.128, p ≤ 0.01) and teamwork (β = 0.131, p ≤ 0.01) with flourishing. However, the indirect effect of self-control on flourishing through weness was not significant. Conclusion: Based on these findings, counselors and couple therapists can strengthen teamwork skills and empathy to enhance couples’ sense of we-ness and shared identity, thereby supporting greater flourishing in their relationships.

Abstract Introduction: The use of mobile phones in education, particularly at the elementary level, can serve as an effective learning tool. However, challenges such as unequal access to technology and the need for proper supervision must also be considered. Although mobile phones offer educational benefits for elementary students, they also present various risks. This study aimed to evaluate and compare fears related to smartphone inaccessibility (nomophobia) among elementary school students in Shiraz. Four dimensions of fear were examined: fear of losing connection with others, fear of losing emotional bonds, fear of losing information, and fear of losing comfort and convenience. Method: This study employed a quantitative approach using a comparative descriptive-survey design. The population comprised all upper elementary students (grades 4–6) in Shiraz during the 2024–2025 academic year. A stratified random sample by gender was selected, including 115 male students (63%) and 67 female students (37%). Nomophobia was assessed using the Yildirim and Correia Scale (2015), a 23-item Likert-type questionnaire with four subscales: fear of losing bonds, fear of losing information, fear of losing connection, and fear of losing comfort. Content validity and reliability were confirmed via correlation coefficients and Cronbach’s alpha (total α = 0.86). Data were analyzed using one-sample t-tests, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), repeated-measures ANOVA, and Bonferroni post hoc tests. Results: The results indicated that among male students, fears of losing bonds and losing information were above the benchmark mean, while fears of losing connection and losing comfort were at the benchmark level. Among female students, fears of losing connection, losing bonds, and losing comfort were above the benchmark, whereas fear of losing information was at the benchmark level. Female students scored significantly higher than males across all four fear dimensions. Fear of losing connection was identified as the predominant fear in both genders. Conclusion: The pervasive influence of smartphones on students’ daily lives necessitates comprehensive interventions encompassing educational, psychological, and family-based strategies to alleviate nomophobia-induced anxiety. The implementation of gender-specific approaches and substitute activities emerges as a pivotal component for program efficacy.

Abstract Introduction: School belonging, as a key component of students' educational experience, plays a decisive role in fostering a sense of security and a positive relationship with the learning environment. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between school belonging and academic well-being, with the mediating role of love of learning among students. Method: This research is applied in purpose and descriptive-correlational in methodology. The statistical population included all second-year high school students in Baneh city during the 2023–2025 academic year. The sample size was estimated at 364 participants using the Cochran formula, and participants were selected through multi-stage cluster sampling. Data were collected using the School Belonging Questionnaire (Brown & Evans, 2002), the Academic Well-Being Scale (Tuminin Sweeney, 2012), and the Love of Learning Scale (McFarlane, 2003). Data analysis was performed using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling (SEM) with SPSS 29 and AMOS 26 software, with a significance level set at 0.05. Results: The results showed a positive and significant relationship between school belonging and academic well-being (p < 0.01). Love of learning had a direct and significant relationship with both school belonging and academic well-being. Furthermore, school belonging had an indirect and significant effect on academic well-being through the mediating role of love of learning (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Based on the findings, a sense of belonging to school and a love of learning significantly contribute to students' academic well-being. Improving teaching methods and strengthening positive support programs within the school environment can enhance academic engagement and promote mental health.

Abstract Introduction: Social anxiety is a prevalent psychological issue among children and adolescents, negatively affecting their mental health and academic achievement. This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of mentalization in the relationship between childhood maltreatment, perceived social support, and symptoms of social anxiety among female senior high school students in Kermanshah. Method: This study employed a correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population comprised all female senior high school students in Kermanshah during the 2023–2024 academic year (approximately 25,000 individuals). A sample of 292 students was selected using cluster sampling. Data collection instruments included the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A; La Greca & Lopez, 1998), the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Bernstein, 2003), the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988), and the Mentalization Questionnaire (MZQ; Dimitrijević et al., 2017). Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine relationships between variables, and the proposed model was tested using SEM. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 28 and AMOS version 24. Results: Findings indicated that perceived social support had both direct and indirect effects (mediated by mentalization) on social anxiety (p < 0.01). Childhood maltreatment had a direct effect on social anxiety (p < 0.01). Model fit indices confirmed the adequacy of the proposed model, and the predictor variables collectively explained 62% of the variance in social anxiety. Conclusion: The results highlight the complex and multidimensional psychological pathways linking early experiences to emotional outcomes in adolescence. Mentalization, as a mediating factor, can play a significant role in the early identification of social anxiety and in the development of effective interventions aimed at preventing its adverse effects on adolescent mental health.

Abstract Introduction: Successful entry into the labor market is a critical stage in students' professional development, and targeted educational interventions can enhance their career optimism and transition readiness. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of flourishing training and transactional analysis on students' career path optimism and readiness for the transition from university to the workforce. Methods: This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest and a control group. The population comprised all unmarried final-year students enrolled at Golestan Azad University during the 2023–2024 academic year. Using convenience sampling, 45 students were selected and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group (15 participants per group). The first experimental group received flourishing training, while the second received transactional analysis training across ten 60-minute sessions; the control group received no intervention. Data were collected using the Rottinghaus Career Path Optimism Questionnaire (2005) and the University-to-Work Transition Readiness Questionnaire (Sadeghi et al., 2017). Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) with SPSS-26. Results: Both flourishing training and transactional analysis significantly improved students' career path optimism and transition readiness (p < 0.05). Significant differences in effectiveness were observed between the two interventions, with flourishing training demonstrating a greater impact on both outcomes. Conclusion: Flourishing training enhances students' sense of competence, self-management, and self-awareness, promotes positive perceptions of their abilities, and fosters optimism, thereby facilitating a successful transition from university to work. Implementing such educational interventions is recommended to better prepare students for entering the labor market..

Abstract Introduction: Workplace bullying is a serious problem among employees that leads to negative behaviors in the workplace. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the effect of ethical leadership on job performance, with the mediating roles of workplace bullying and knowledge hiding and the moderating role of job engagement among employees in the insurance industry. Method: This study is applied in purpose and descriptive in method, employing structural equation modeling (SEM) over a six-month period during the first half of 2025. The statistical population included all employees of Alborz Insurance in 2025 (N = 1,585). Based on the Krejcie-Morgan table, the required sample size was 310 individuals, selected using stratified random sampling. Data collection instruments included the Organizational Bullying Scale (Freire & Pinto, 2022), the Ethical Leadership Scale (Freire & Pinto, 2022), the Job Engagement Scale (Salanova & Schaufeli, 2006), the Knowledge Hiding Scale (Abdullah, Dechun, Ali & Usman, 2019), and the Job Performance Scale (Bouckenooghe, Zafar & Raja, 2015). Reliability was confirmed using Cronbach's alpha, and validity was examined through confirmatory factor analysis. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26 and PLS 3 statistical software. Results: The results showed that ethical leadership did not have a significant direct effect on job performance (path coefficient = 0.620, t-statistic = 1.838). However, ethical leadership had a significant negative effect on workplace bullying (path coefficient = -0.272, t = 5.913) and on knowledge hiding (path coefficient = -0.789, t = 4.343). Workplace bullying had a significant positive effect on knowledge hiding (path coefficient = 0.343, t = 7.385) and a significant negative effect on job performance (path coefficient = -0.221, t = 3.563). Job engagement significantly moderated the relationship between ethical leadership and job performance. Furthermore, workplace bullying mediated the relationship between ethical leadership and job performance, and knowledge hiding also mediated this relationship. Conclusion: Ethical leadership does not directly enhance job performance; rather, its influence is transmitted indirectly through the reduction of workplace bullying and knowledge hiding. Additionally, job engagement serves as a critical moderating factor that strengthens the positive effect of ethical leadership on performance. These findings suggest that organizations aiming to improve employee performance should focus not only on promoting ethical leadership but also on actively reducing bullying and knowledge-hiding behaviors while fostering job engagement. Without such intermediary mechanisms, ethical leadership alone may be insufficient to drive performance outcomes.

Abstract Introduction: With the increasing participation of women in the labor market, the simultaneous fulfillment of occupational and family roles can create interpersonal conflicts and marital problems. In this context, marital burnout, as a significant consequence of work–family conflict and insecure attachment styles, can affect the quality of life of employed women. Despite previous studies examining bivariate relationships among these variables, the mediating role of covert relational aggression has received less attention. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of covert relational aggression in the relationship between work–family conflict and attachment styles with marital burnout among employed women Methods: This study employed a descriptive-correlational design using path analysis. The statistical population included married employed women attending counseling centers in District 5 of Tehran during 2021–2022. A total of 250 participants were selected through purposive sampling, and data from 225 participants were ultimately analyzed. Research instruments included the Work–Family Conflict Questionnaire (Netemeyer et al., 1996), the Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990), the Marital Burnout Scale (Pines, 1996), and the Covert Relational Aggression Scale (Nelson & Carroll, 2006). Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and path analysis in SPSS 26 and AMOS 23. Results: The results showed that secure attachment style had a negative but non-significant direct effect on marital burnout (β = -0.152, p > 0.05). Insecure attachment style had a significant positive direct effect on covert relational aggression (β = 0.128, p < 0.05) and on marital burnout (β = 0.189, p < 0.01). Work–family conflict had a significant positive direct effect on covert relational aggression (β = 0.184, p < 0.01) and on marital burnout (β = 0.173, p < 0.01). Covert relational aggression had a significant positive direct effect on marital burnout (β = 0.173, p < 0.01). Bootstrap results further indicated that the indirect effects of attachment styles and work–family conflict on marital burnout through covert relational aggression were significant (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The findings indicate that employed women who experience conflict between occupational and family roles are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion and marital burnout if they possess insecure attachment styles and engage in aggressive and indirect relational patterns. Therefore, training in communication skills, emotion regulation, and conflict management may be effective in reducing marital burnout among employed women and improving the quality of couple relationships.

Abstract Introduction: Marital conflicts are among the key factors that weaken the foundation of the family, with women being particularly affected by such conflicts. Self-silencing and emotional blackmail appear to be influential factors contributing to marital conflicts. The aim of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of Imago Therapy (a relationship-focused approach) on self-silencing and emotional blackmail in women experiencing marital conflicts. Method: This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest control group. The statistical population included all women seeking services at counseling centers in Yazd in 2024 (1403 in the Iranian calendar). A total of 30 participants were selected using purposive sampling and were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15). Assessments were conducted using the Marital Conflicts Questionnaire (Sanai & Barati, 1990), the Self-Silencing Scale (Jack, 1991), and the Emotional Blackmail Scale (Karnani, 2018). The experimental group received Imago Therapy across eight sessions, while the control group received no intervention. Data were analyzed using SPSS-26 software and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). Results: The results showed that Imago Therapy was effective in reducing self-silencing and emotional blackmail among women with marital conflicts. The greatest effect of the intervention was observed on the self-silencing variable (p < 0.01). Conclusion: Based on these findings, Imago Therapy (a relationship-focused approach) can be used to reduce destructive emotional patterns between couples, particularly self-silencing and emotional blackmail.

Abstract Introduction: In recent years, academic citizenship behaviors have increasingly attracted researchers' attention as key components in enhancing learning quality, improving academic interactions, and strengthening students' sense of responsibility. These behaviors are influenced by various individual and familial factors. Accordingly, the present study aimed to causally explain academic citizenship behaviors based on economic, social, and cultural capital, with the mediating role of moral character among student teachers at Farhangian University. Method: This research employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population included all pre-service teachers at Farhangian University in Yazd during the 2023–2024 academic year. A total of 360 participants were selected through cluster random sampling, and data from 352 individuals were ultimately analyzed. The measurement tools included questionnaires on academic citizenship behavior (Golparvar, 2010); family social capital (Akbari, 2013); cultural capital (Sharbatian & Eskandari, 2017); and moral character (Khormaei & Ghaemi, 2018). Data were analyzed using SPSS-26 and SmartPLS-3 software. Results: The results indicated that social capital had a direct significant effect on academic citizenship behaviors (β = 0.19), while cultural (β = -0.04) and economic capital (β = 0.06) did not. All three types of capital significantly predicted moral character (social: β = 0.13; economic: β = 0.23; cultural: β = 0.20). Moreover, moral character significantly influenced academic citizenship behaviors (β = 0.42). Regarding indirect effects, cultural (β = 0.10) and economic capital (β = 0.08) influenced academic citizenship behaviors through moral character, whereas the indirect effect of social capital was not significant (β = 0.05). Conclusion: The research findings highlight the direct role of social capital in enhancing academic citizenship behaviors and underscore the mediating role of moral character in transmitting the effects of cultural and economic capital.

Abstract Introduction: Traumatic experiences in childhood have irreparable effects on the adult mind and are associated with suicidal thoughts. The aim of the present study was to investigate the mediating role of emotion regulation and suicide crisis syndrome in the relationship between emotional beliefs and suicidal ideation among adults with a history of childhood adversity.
Method: The research employed a descriptive-correlational design using serial path analysis. The statistical population consisted of all adults in Semnan with a history of childhood adversity, from which 320 participants were selected through purposive sampling. The instruments used in this study included questionnaires on childhood trauma, suicidal ideation, beliefs about emotions, emotion regulation, and suicide crisis syndrome. Path analysis was used to analyze the proposed research model.
Results: The findings showed that emotional beliefs had a direct and significant effect on suicidal ideation. Furthermore, emotional beliefs were related to suicidal ideation through the serial mediating roles of emotion regulation and suicide crisis syndrome (p < 0.05).
Conclusion: According to the results, negative beliefs about emotions were associated with greater emotional suppression and lower reappraisal ability, which in turn were associated with higher suicide crisis syndrome and ultimately with greater suicide risk. By understanding and gaining insight into the cycle of suicidal thoughts—particularly the mediating factors—it is possible to design and implement educational, preventive, and therapeutic programs to prevent suicidal tendencies and reduce the prevalence of suicidal ideation.

Abstract Introduction: This study aimed to examine the interactive pattern of psychological strain and adverse early life experiences with suicide probability in adolescents, considering the mediating effects of positive self-perception and feelings of entrapment. Method: The research employed a descriptive-correlational design using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population comprised all adolescents aged 13 to 19 in Nurabad (Delfan) County during the 2024–2025 academic year (1403 in the Iranian calendar). The study sample consisted of 623 adolescents selected using cluster random sampling. Data were collected using the Psychological Strain Scale (Zhang et al., 2014), the Suicide Probability Scale (Cull & Gill, 1982), the Entrapment Scale (Gilbert & Allan, 1998), the Early Negative Life Experiences Scale (Gilbert et al., 2003), and the Positive Self-Perception subscale of the Multidimensional Suicide Inventory (MSI-28; Osman et al., 2010). Results: The findings indicated that the exogenous variables (psychological strain and early adverse life experiences), together with the mediating variables (positive self-perception and entrapment), made a substantial contribution to increasing the probability of suicide. Collectively, these factors explained 56% of the variance in suicide probability. Moreover, psychological strain and early adverse life experiences alone accounted for 29% of the variance in positive self-perception and 50% of the variance in entrapment. Conclusion: Based on these results, fostering positive self-perception in schools and educating families—particularly during critical developmental stages—is important for suicide prevention, as this factor plays a role in reducing suicidal behaviors among adolescents.

Abstract Introduction: Bullying victimization is a prevalent phenomenon in educational and social settings and poses a serious threat to individuals' mental health, self-esteem, and quality of life, particularly during childhood and adolescence. Repeated experiences of bullying can lead to anxiety, depression, feelings of loneliness, and social withdrawal, and may have long-term consequences on emotional development and social relationships. The present study aimed to examine the relationship between social anxiety and social isolation with bullying victimization, considering the mediating role of emotion regulation among secondary school students. Methods: This descriptive-correlational study was conducted among all secondary school students in Eslamshahr City during the 2024–2025 academic year. A total of 368 students were randomly selected using a multistage cluster sampling method. Data were collected using the California Bullying Victimization Questionnaire (Felix et al., 2011), the Social Anxiety Scale (Jerabek, 1996), the Social Isolation Questionnaire (Chelpi & Amirkafi, 2004), and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John, 2003). The proposed model was tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) with SPSS 26 and AMOS 24. Results: Findings indicated significant relationships between social anxiety (β = 0.30, p = 0.01), social isolation (β = 0.25, p = 0.05), and emotion regulation (β = -0.50, p < 0.001) with bullying victimization. Additionally, social anxiety (β = -0.45, p < 0.001) and social isolation (β = -0.40, p < 0.001) were significantly associated with emotion regulation. Emotion regulation was found to mediate the relationships of both social anxiety (β = -0.22, p < 0.001) and social isolation (β = -0.20, p < 0.001) with bullying victimization. Conclusion: The results suggest that social anxiety and social isolation can increase the risk of being victimized by bullying, while emotion regulation serves as an effective mediating factor that can mitigate this relationship. Enhancing emotion regulation skills in students may help reduce the negative impacts of bullying victimization in school settings.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy training on interpersonal relationships and beliefs related to smartphone use in junior high school students. Methods: The statistical population of the present study was female students of the first high school in Gorgan city in the academic year 1402-1403. The research method was a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test-post-test design with a control group. For this purpose, first, 40 people were selected by available sampling method and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and a control group (20 people each). To measure the research variables, the questionnaires of interpersonal relationships of Chia and Fao (2011) and metacognitive beliefs related to smartphone use of Kassel et al. (2020) were used. Results: Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test method. The results of the study showed that training mindfulness skills had an impact on students' beliefs related to smartphone use. Discussion:In describing the findings of this study, it can be said that mindfulness training based on cognitive therapy is one of the effective educational and therapeutic approaches in improving and enriching the quality of life of individuals, which has a desirable structure for working on various client issues, interpersonal relationships and including metacognitive beliefs related to smartphone use in students. It should be noted that by practicing mindfulness, they will realize when, where, and why they use the phone.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of social-emotional competence training on mental toughness, empathy, and school belonging among female students with antisocial behaviors. Method: This research employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest control group. The statistical population consisted of all female high school students in Khorramabad with antisocial behaviors during the 2024–2025 academic year. A sample of 30 students was selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (15 participants per group). The experimental group received social-emotional competence training across ten 90-minute sessions. Data collection instruments included the Antisocial Behavior Questionnaire (Burt & Donnellan, 2009), the Basic Empathy Scale for Children and Adolescents (2010), the Short Version of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire (Papageorgiou et al., 2019), and the School Belonging Scale (Brown & Evans, 2002). Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS version 26. Results: The ANCOVA results indicated that social-emotional competence training led to a significant increase in mental toughness (p < .001), empathy (p < .001), and school belonging (p < .001) in the experimental group compared to the control group. Conclusion: The findings suggest that social-emotional competence training can serve as an effective approach for enhancing mental health and reducing antisocial behaviors among female students. Based on these results, it is recommended that such training be integrated into preventive and intervention programs within schools.